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.The same argument holds for theelement photo- light , which behaves like a first element in a compound in the forms Chapter 4: Affixation93in (5b), and for the forms in (5c) (geo- earth , neuro- nerve , philo- love , -logy scienceof ).The only difference between the neoclassical forms and native compounds isthat the non-native elements are obligatorily bound.This is also the reason why theneoclassical elements are often called combining forms.We can thus state that neoclassical formations are best treated as compounds,and not as cases of affixation.Further discussion of these forms will therefore bepostponed until chapter 6.To summarize our discussion of how do distinguish affixes from non-affixational morphemes, we can say that this distinction is not alwaysstraightforward, but that even in problematic cases it is possible to establish thenature of a complex word as either affixed or compounded on the basis of structuralarguments.2.How to investigate affixes: more on methodologyIn the previous chapters, we have already seen that large dictionaries andcomputerized corpora can be used fruitfully to investigate properties of derivedwords and of the affixes by which they are derived.However, we did not discusshow word-lists such as the ones we have used can be extracted from those sources,and what the problems are that one encounters in this endeavor.It is the purpose ofthis section to introduce the reader to these important aspects of empirical researchon affixation.Let us start with the simplest and rather traditional kind of data base: reversedictionaries such as Walker (1924), Lehnert (1971), or Muthmann (1999).Thesedictionaries list words in alphabetical order according to their spelling from right toleft, to the effect that words ending in come first, those ending in come last.Thus sofa is among the first words in a reverse dictionary, fuzz among the last.Thiskind of organization is of course very convenient for the study of suffixes, whereasfor prefixes any large dictionary will do a good job in helping to find pertinent forms.The reverse dictionary by Muthmann (1999) is the most convenient formorphological research because it does not list the words in strictly orthographical Chapter 4: Affixation94order, but groups them according to their pronunciation or morphology.Forexample, if one is interested in words with the suffix -ion, the pertinent words arefound in one subsection, with no non-pertinent words intervening.Thus, wordsending in the same string of letters, such as lion, are found in a different subsectionand do not spoil the list of words whose final string represents a suffix.Needless to say, this kind of dictionary is extremely practical for the analysis ofword-formation patterns, but has the disadvantage of containing nothing but word-forms, hence not giving any additional information on these forms (e.g.meaning,first attestations, usage etc.)This kind of potentially very useful information is provided by a source thatoffers more sophisticated ways to gain large amounts of valuable data, the OED.Anentry of a word in the OED is a rather complex text, which contains different kinds ofinformation, such as pronunciation, part of speech, etymology, definitions,quotations, date of quotation, author of quotation, etc.).The quotations illustrate theusage of a lexical item at a specific point in time, and since the OED aims at completecoverage of the English word stock, the earliest known attestation of a word isalways given.This is very important in our context, because it allows us to traceneologisms for any given period in time.On the CD-ROM version of the OED, thiswealth of information is organized not in serial form, but as a large data base, whichhas the considerable advantage that the different kinds of information contained inthe dictionary can be accessed separately.The modular organization of the data inthe OED allows us, for example, to search all quotations for certain words that arefirst used in the quotations of a specific period in time, or we can search all entries forwords containing a specific set of letters.How is this done in practice and how can itbe employed for morphological research?Assume that we want to investigate the properties of the suffix -ment.Let usfurther assume that we also want to know whether this suffix is still productive.Ofcourse we can look up the suffix itself in the OED, but this does not satisfactorilyanswer all our questions (after all, the OED is a dictionary, not a reference book onEnglish derivational morphology).But we can carry out our own investigation of allthe pertinent words contained in the OED.To investigate the properties of the suffixment we could extract all words containing the suffix, and, to answer the question Chapter 4: Affixation95whether -ment is still productive, we could, for example, extract all words containingthe suffix that first occurred after 1950.The words can be extracted by using a simple programing language thatcomes with the CD-ROM and run a small search program.The programing languageis explained in detail in the user s handbook of the OED on CD-ROM, but our simple-ment example will make clear how it works.By clicking on the menu file and then Query Files: New in the drop-down menu, we open a window ( New Query File )in which we must enter our search query.By typing ENT wd=(*ment) & fd=(1950-1985) into (ment.ent) we tell the program to search all OED entries ( ENT ) for allwords ( wd= ) that start in any string of letters ( * ) and end in the letter string.The command & fd=(1950-1985) further tells the program to look only forthose words that are first attested ( fd stands for first date of attestation )between 1950 and 1985 (where the OED coverage ends).When we run this query byclicking on Run in the file menu, the program will write all relevant words into thefile ment.ent.This file can then always be re-opened by clicking on the menu fileand then Result Files: Open.Or the result file can be transformed into a text file byclicking Result Files: Output to text in the file menu.After having clicked on the file,one can select in the following window which parts of the pertinent entries shall bewritten into the text file.Selecting only word , we get the headwords of the entriesthat contain our -ment derivatives.Alternatively, one can also select other parts of theentry, which are then equally written into the text file [ Pobierz całość w formacie PDF ]
zanotowane.pl doc.pisz.pl pdf.pisz.pl przylepto3.keep.pl
.The same argument holds for theelement photo- light , which behaves like a first element in a compound in the forms Chapter 4: Affixation93in (5b), and for the forms in (5c) (geo- earth , neuro- nerve , philo- love , -logy scienceof ).The only difference between the neoclassical forms and native compounds isthat the non-native elements are obligatorily bound.This is also the reason why theneoclassical elements are often called combining forms.We can thus state that neoclassical formations are best treated as compounds,and not as cases of affixation.Further discussion of these forms will therefore bepostponed until chapter 6.To summarize our discussion of how do distinguish affixes from non-affixational morphemes, we can say that this distinction is not alwaysstraightforward, but that even in problematic cases it is possible to establish thenature of a complex word as either affixed or compounded on the basis of structuralarguments.2.How to investigate affixes: more on methodologyIn the previous chapters, we have already seen that large dictionaries andcomputerized corpora can be used fruitfully to investigate properties of derivedwords and of the affixes by which they are derived.However, we did not discusshow word-lists such as the ones we have used can be extracted from those sources,and what the problems are that one encounters in this endeavor.It is the purpose ofthis section to introduce the reader to these important aspects of empirical researchon affixation.Let us start with the simplest and rather traditional kind of data base: reversedictionaries such as Walker (1924), Lehnert (1971), or Muthmann (1999).Thesedictionaries list words in alphabetical order according to their spelling from right toleft, to the effect that words ending in come first, those ending in come last.Thus sofa is among the first words in a reverse dictionary, fuzz among the last.Thiskind of organization is of course very convenient for the study of suffixes, whereasfor prefixes any large dictionary will do a good job in helping to find pertinent forms.The reverse dictionary by Muthmann (1999) is the most convenient formorphological research because it does not list the words in strictly orthographical Chapter 4: Affixation94order, but groups them according to their pronunciation or morphology.Forexample, if one is interested in words with the suffix -ion, the pertinent words arefound in one subsection, with no non-pertinent words intervening.Thus, wordsending in the same string of letters, such as lion, are found in a different subsectionand do not spoil the list of words whose final string represents a suffix.Needless to say, this kind of dictionary is extremely practical for the analysis ofword-formation patterns, but has the disadvantage of containing nothing but word-forms, hence not giving any additional information on these forms (e.g.meaning,first attestations, usage etc.)This kind of potentially very useful information is provided by a source thatoffers more sophisticated ways to gain large amounts of valuable data, the OED.Anentry of a word in the OED is a rather complex text, which contains different kinds ofinformation, such as pronunciation, part of speech, etymology, definitions,quotations, date of quotation, author of quotation, etc.).The quotations illustrate theusage of a lexical item at a specific point in time, and since the OED aims at completecoverage of the English word stock, the earliest known attestation of a word isalways given.This is very important in our context, because it allows us to traceneologisms for any given period in time.On the CD-ROM version of the OED, thiswealth of information is organized not in serial form, but as a large data base, whichhas the considerable advantage that the different kinds of information contained inthe dictionary can be accessed separately.The modular organization of the data inthe OED allows us, for example, to search all quotations for certain words that arefirst used in the quotations of a specific period in time, or we can search all entries forwords containing a specific set of letters.How is this done in practice and how can itbe employed for morphological research?Assume that we want to investigate the properties of the suffix -ment.Let usfurther assume that we also want to know whether this suffix is still productive.Ofcourse we can look up the suffix itself in the OED, but this does not satisfactorilyanswer all our questions (after all, the OED is a dictionary, not a reference book onEnglish derivational morphology).But we can carry out our own investigation of allthe pertinent words contained in the OED.To investigate the properties of the suffixment we could extract all words containing the suffix, and, to answer the question Chapter 4: Affixation95whether -ment is still productive, we could, for example, extract all words containingthe suffix that first occurred after 1950.The words can be extracted by using a simple programing language thatcomes with the CD-ROM and run a small search program.The programing languageis explained in detail in the user s handbook of the OED on CD-ROM, but our simple-ment example will make clear how it works.By clicking on the menu file and then Query Files: New in the drop-down menu, we open a window ( New Query File )in which we must enter our search query.By typing ENT wd=(*ment) & fd=(1950-1985) into (ment.ent) we tell the program to search all OED entries ( ENT ) for allwords ( wd= ) that start in any string of letters ( * ) and end in the letter string.The command & fd=(1950-1985) further tells the program to look only forthose words that are first attested ( fd stands for first date of attestation )between 1950 and 1985 (where the OED coverage ends).When we run this query byclicking on Run in the file menu, the program will write all relevant words into thefile ment.ent.This file can then always be re-opened by clicking on the menu fileand then Result Files: Open.Or the result file can be transformed into a text file byclicking Result Files: Output to text in the file menu.After having clicked on the file,one can select in the following window which parts of the pertinent entries shall bewritten into the text file.Selecting only word , we get the headwords of the entriesthat contain our -ment derivatives.Alternatively, one can also select other parts of theentry, which are then equally written into the text file [ Pobierz całość w formacie PDF ]